1. Introduction

Corruption in public administration is one of the most relevant and widespread problems in modern society. It has a devastating impact on economic development, social justice and political stability. Countries with a high level of corruption experience slower economic growth, inefficient use of public resources and a decline in public trust in government institutions. Uzbekistan is no exception: despite significant efforts to combat corruption, this phenomenon continues to be a pressing issue that requires a comprehensive and systematic approach to address it.

The research covers several key aspects that form a comprehensive understanding of the current situation and ways to improve it. One of the main problems is the weakness and inefficiency of state institutions that are supposed to ensure transparency and accountability in resource management. Uzbekistan is often characterised by insufficient control over public spending, limited independence of the judiciary and non-transparent decision-making processes. These factors create favourable conditions for corruption and abuse of power. In addition, the complexity of the fight against corruption is exacerbated by the lack of public awareness of their rights and obligations, as well as the lack of activity of civil society in the fight against corruption. Historical factors and the transitional nature of Uzbek society are also significant in shaping persistent corruption practices.

Since gaining independence in 1991, Uzbekistan has gone through difficult stages of transition from a planned economy to market relations, accompanied by reforms of state institutions. However, despite these efforts, corruption is deeply entrenched in Uzbek society, creating favourable conditions for abuse of power and illicit enrichment. Institutional weaknesses, lack of transparency in decision-making processes and insufficient accountability of public officials remain the main factors contributing to the spread of corruption.

An analysis of anti-corruption policy and legislation in Uzbekistan requires an assessment of the existing legal framework and institutional structure against international standards. It is also necessary to identify problems, such as lack of transparency and coordination, and to develop recommendations to improve the effectiveness of the fight against corruption, based on international best practices. A related issue was considered by Mirzaev^[1], who analysed anti-corruption policy and legislation in Uzbekistan, identified current problems and developed recommendations to improve the effectiveness of the fight against corruption based on international experience. Zhuraev^[2] explored the principles of developing legal instruments to combat corruption in Uzbekistan. Particular attention was devoted to how Uzbekistan is adopting and adapting global anti-corruption practices to strengthen its own governance and transparency mechanisms. Zadoyan^[3] addressed the role of governmental and public institutions in the implementation of these measures, emphasising the importance of continuous improvement of the legal framework and the introduction of innovative approaches to ensure the long-term success of anti-corruption policies.

Analysing anti-corruption policy and legislation in Uzbekistan is relevant as corruption hurts economic development, undermines trust in government institutions and creates an uneven playing field for businesses. Iskhakova^[4] explored how corruption negatively affects economic development and the role digitalisation, e-government and information technology play in reducing corruption. Moreover, Saidov^[5] analysed the practice of implementing e-government as a way to increase transparency and efficiency of public administration. For instance, Ismailov^[6] discussed measures and emerging challenges in the fight against corruption in the public procurement system. The author analysed the existing mechanisms for preventing corruption and identifying weaknesses that can be used for abuse.

Corruption is a complex and multifaceted process that covers various aspects of public life, from the economy to politics^[7]. The effective fight against corruption requires not only the actions of state institutions but also the active participation of civil society institutions. Civil society organisations, independent media, educational institutions and the private sector play an important role in detecting corruption cases, reporting them and influencing the formation of zero tolerance to corruption in society^[8]. Only joint efforts by all parties can ensure a significant reduction in corruption and the establishment of the principles of honesty and transparency in public administration. A related issue was explored by Tursunov^[9]. The author concluded that the critical role belongs not only to legislative and law enforcement mechanisms but also to the education, transparency and responsibility of all participants in the process. Yumatov^[10] addressed the development of the institutional framework for anti-corruption policy in Uzbekistan after the ratification of the United Nations Convention against Corruption^[11]. The main conclusion of the paper is the importance of interagency cooperation and the strengthening of institutional structures for the effective fight against corruption in the country.

Despite a considerable amount of research, the problem of corruption in Uzbekistan requires further in-depth analysis, especially in ongoing reforms and changes in public administration. In previous studies, the problems of fighting corruption in Uzbek public administration remained unresolved in several key aspects. Institutional sustainability and long-term effectiveness of anti-corruption measures are not sufficiently studied.

The study aimed to address the impact of state institutions on the level of corruption in Uzbekistan. To achieve the research objective, the following tasks were formulated: to study the current state of state institutions in Uzbekistan and their role in shaping anti-corruption policy; to assess the level of corruption in various sectors of public administration and identify the main causes and conditions that facilitate corrupt practices; to develop recommendations for improving the anti-corruption strategy in Uzbekistan based on the identified relationships between state institutions and corruption.

2. Materials and Methods

To achieve the objectives of this study, a comprehensive approach based on the analysis of regulatory documents, statistical data and comparative methods was used. A detailed analysis of Article 5 of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, which obliges state parties to develop and implement an effective, coordinated anti-corruption policy, was carried out. The study identified key principles, such as the need to ensure the independence of anti-corruption bodies, conduct systematic monitoring and evaluation, and promote transparency and public participation in anti-corruption initiatives. This analysis has contributed to a deeper understanding of international anti-corruption standards and their application in the context of Uzbekistan and the Balkan region.

The study examined the text of the Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. PP-2752^[12], which were used to identify strategic priorities and specific measures aimed at reducing the level of corruption in Uzbekistan. This document was used primarily to determine national anti-corruption initiatives and plans. The next document analysed was the State Programme for Combating Corruption for 2023-2024 in Uzbekistan^[13]. The programme was reviewed to analyse the current anti-corruption strategies and measures in place in Uzbekistan. This analysis included an assessment of the programme goals and objectives, as well as the methods of its implementation. The provisions of the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. ZRU-419^[14] were addressed to determine the legal and institutional framework of anti-corruption policy in Uzbekistan. This contributed to the assessment of legal mechanisms used to combat corruption, such as the creation of specialised anti-corruption bodies and the introduction of mandatory procedures to prevent corruption risks.

The study used reports from international, multidisciplinary organisations such as Transparency International aims to study the Corruption Perception Index^[15], and Rule of Law Index^[16], which studies the rule of law index. The Corruption Perception Index statistics were analysed to assess the level of corruption in Uzbekistan and the Balkan countries, which were used to identify the dynamics of changes and compare the results between different countries. The analysis of the Rule of Law Index data was used to assess the level of compliance with the rule of law and the absence of corruption in state institutions. The data was used to compare the performance of Uzbekistan and the countries of the Balkan region. A study of the Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. PP-228^[17] was conducted to determine how anti-corruption education programmes are planned to be introduced and to assess their potential impact on society and state structures.

The study used comparative analysis methods to compare anti-corruption reforms in Uzbekistan and the Balkan countries. This included examining the approaches used in each country and assessing their effectiveness based on existing data and research. Using the above materials and methods, a holistic view of current anti-corruption initiatives in Uzbekistan and the Balkan countries was identified, as well as the main factors contributing to the successful implementation of anti-corruption programmes.

3. Results

Corruption is one of the most pressing problems in governance and the economy, especially in times of economic and political crises. At such times, weaknesses in the institutional structure are reinforced, creating a favourable environment for the spread of corrupt practices. During crises, state and public institutions often face increased pressure and instability, which can lead to a decrease in control and accountability, increasing opportunities for corruption^[18]. Economic shocks, such as recessions or inflationary spikes, can undermine trust in government institutions and create incentives for corrupt behaviour as officials and citizens seek ways to mitigate personal financial losses. Political crises, such as regime change, protests or political instability, can weaken the rule of law and create conditions for more arbitrary and illegal resource allocation. As a result, even well-functioning anti-corruption mechanisms may not be sufficient if the institutional structure of the state is not sufficiently resilient and flexible to face new challenges arising from crises^[19].

Corruption poses a serious threat to the stability and development of any country, especially in times of economic and political crises. Analyses of different countries show that weaknesses in the institutional framework and insufficient resilience of legal mechanisms can contribute to the spread of corrupt practices^[20]. It is necessary to address how individual states are dealing with this problem and what measures are being taken to address it. One such example is Uzbekistan, where significant reforms and anti-corruption initiatives are being implemented to increase the transparency and efficiency of public administration.

Article 5 of the United Nations Convention against Corruption^[21] provided an important impetus for the development of anti-corruption strategies in Uzbekistan. This paragraph requires member states to implement an effective and coherent anti-corruption policy, which has become the basis for the development of anti-corruption strategies in Uzbekistan. In 2016, Uzbekistan launched significant reforms aimed at strengthening anti-corruption measures. One of the first steps was the Comprehensive Action Plan for the implementation of anti-corruption measures. This document was deemed a significant achievement by experts within the Istanbul Anti-Corruption Action Plan and marked the beginning of a new stage in the national anti-corruption efforts^[22]. Although comprehensive plans do not constitute a comprehensive strategy in themselves, they represent minimum effective measures^[23]. Each of these plans, although limited in nature, can be useful in the context of specific anti-corruption tasks and initiatives.

To improve the effectiveness of the anti-corruption system, Uzbekistan has adopted a policy of developing and implementing annual state programmes to combat corruption. These programmes define the priority areas of state policy in the fight against corruption in the medium term. The process of developing these programmes involves the active participation of representatives of all ministries and agencies, as well as civil society institutions, academia and the business community. This interagency cooperation ensures a comprehensive approach to addressing corruption and contributes to a more effective implementation of anti-corruption policy. As of 2024, the State Programme for Combating Corruption for 2023-2024 in Uzbekistan is in force.

The State Programme for Combating Corruption for 2023-2024 in Uzbekistan is a strategic document for further strengthening anti-corruption measures in the country. This programme is based on previous achievements, international experience and current challenges facing the country. The programme aims to achieve several key objectives. The main objective is to strengthen the institutional framework by increasing the effectiveness and independence of anti-corruption bodies, especially the Anti-Corruption Agency. It is envisaged to improve coordination between various state and public structures involved in the fight against corruption. The next goal is to develop the legal framework, which is to improve the legislation governing anti-corruption activities. The programme includes measures to adapt regulations to international standards and the specifics of national conditions. In addition, the programme envisages the introduction of new reporting standards and the creation of control mechanisms that will allow the public to access information about the activities of the authorities. Another goal is the prevention of corruption, which is the development and implementation of measures aimed at preventing corruption in key sectors such as healthcare, education and public procurement. The programme includes initiatives to create “clean zones” in the most corruption-prone areas.

The programme focuses on the introduction of modern information and communication technologies (ICT) to reduce corruption risks. E-government platforms and online reporting systems play a central role in this strategy. The development and implementation of electronic platforms and online reporting systems not only contribute to the modernisation of public administration but are also a key element of an effective anti-corruption strategy, helping to strengthen trust in public institutions among citizens^[24]. The programme also includes activities to support independent research and monitoring of corruption, as well as to encourage public initiatives in this area. To verify the continuity of the operation of the “helplines” (call centres) of government agencies and organisations, as well as to assess the telephone numbers listed on their official websites, the “Mystery Shopping Feedback” programme is being implemented. These measures are designed to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of feedback, including the timeliness and quality of processing requests.

The State Programme on Combating Corruption for 2023-2024 in Uzbekistan also provides for international cooperation, which consists of expanding cooperation with international organisations and foreign partners to share experience and jointly develop effective anti-corruption solutions. Cooperation increases access to international resources and expertise, facilitating the adaptation of international standards into national practice^[25]. An important part of this process is participation in international projects and programmes aimed at supporting law enforcement and governance reforms, which helps to increase the effectiveness of anti-corruption measures and strengthen the national institutional capacity in this area. To achieve the anti-corruption goals in Uzbekistan, the programme should include not only a set of measures aimed at improving transparency and accountability but also active public involvement in anti-corruption processes. Transparency and accountability are fundamental principles for effective anti-corruption, but active public participation in this process is necessary to put pressure on the authorities and ensure continuous monitoring of the implementation of anti-corruption measures^[26]. It also helps to build trust between government agencies and civil society, which can significantly enhance the effectiveness and long-term sustainability of anti-corruption initiatives.

One of the key measures of the programme is the creation of a unified register of civil servants. The register will contain detailed information on career movements, income and assets of civil servants. The purpose of the register is to ensure transparency and accessibility of information about employees, which will help prevent possible conflicts of interest and cases of unjust enrichment. The register is expected to be open to public scrutiny, which will be an important step in increasing public trust in state institutions. Public authorities will be required to implement systems for regular assessment and analysis of corruption risks. These assessments should be conducted systematically and include publication of the results. The implementation of such a system will not only identify existing risks but also provide a quick response to new threats. Publication of these reports will provide additional control by citizens and independent experts. The programme provides for the mandatory participation of civil society activists in tender commissions for public procurement. This innovation aims to reduce the risk of corrupt transactions and increase transparency in public procurement. The involvement of independent observers will help to strengthen public scrutiny and increase confidence in the results of tenders, ensuring a fairer distribution of public contracts.

Education plays a key role in shaping anti-corruption behaviour. The programme includes the development and implementation of educational initiatives aimed at improving legal and anti-corruption literacy. These programmes will start at an early age and cover different levels of education, including schools, universities and vocational training. These programmes aim to develop a strong rejection of corruption and an awareness of its negative consequences among the younger generation. To ensure greater accessibility and transparency, the programme includes the creation of an online platform through which citizens can file complaints about corruption. The platform will ensure that complaints are promptly reviewed and responded to, ensuring that no complaint is left unaddressed. The introduction of such a system will help speed up the process of responding to corruption cases and improve interaction between citizens and government agencies. The integration of information systems will make it possible to strengthen cooperation between various government agencies. This will improve coordination, facilitate data exchange and identify corruption risks at an early stage. Modern technologies will be used to create a more coherent and efficient data management system, which will significantly increase the effectiveness of anti-corruption work.

The programme includes support for research and development in the field of anti-corruption activities. Grants and research funding will be allocated to study new methods and tools for fighting corruption. Academic and research institutions are expected to propose innovative approaches and solutions that will help strengthen the national anti-corruption strategy. The programme also emphasises the importance of regular monitoring and reporting. The programme is to be evaluated quarterly, with reports to be published. These reports will be discussed at meetings of the National Council for Combating Corruption, which will provide critical analysis and the opportunity to adjust measures if necessary. This approach will ensure the transparency of the programme implementation process and the involvement of all stakeholders in discussing its effectiveness.

The Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. ZRU-419 laid the foundation for the legislative regulation of the fight against corruption in the country. This law establishes the legal framework, and main directions of anti-corruption policy and defines the institutional structure for its implementation. Uzbekistani anti-corruption policy is based on evidence from a variety of sources. Government agencies provide key data necessary for analysing the current situation with corruption. These international organisations include the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Bank, the Group of States against Corruption (GRECO), and the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF). The recommendations and data provided by these organisations serve as the basis for the development and adjustment of Uzbekistan anti-corruption policy. Furthermore, surveys and research conducted by civil society institutions are also important sources of information. A significant contribution is made by the Public Opinion Research Centre and other independent organisations that measure public perceptions and experiences of corruption.

To ensure transparency in the administration of justice related to corruption-related offences, Uzbekistan has implemented an electronic criminal justice system as part of the unified automated information system eStat 4.0^[27]. This system includes statistical data on corruption offences committed by employees of state bodies and organisations. It also contains an electronic database that records court decisions on corruption cases that have entered into force. This platform not only helps to increase transparency but also serves as an important tool for monitoring and analysing the situation of corruption in the country. It provides a detailed analysis of the dynamics of corruption crimes by region and sector, which helps to make more informed decisions in the fight against corruption. The E-Anti-Corruption project was launched on 1 September 2022 to improve the mechanisms for assessing and eliminating corruption risks in Uzbekistani government agencies. This project aims to support efforts in public administration corruption prevention and represents a significant step in the development of digital anti-corruption tools. Based on the assessments carried out in 2022, programmes of comprehensive measures were developed and implemented to address corruption risks in critical areas such as capital construction, education and public procurement. These programmes are designed to identify and eliminate potential corruption threats, ensuring more transparent and effective governance in these sectors.

The Anti-Corruption Agency plays a central role in the development and implementation of the state anti-corruption policy in Uzbekistan. This agency is responsible for developing and coordinating anti-corruption programmes at the national level. It coordinates operations with various government agencies and large business entities that establish internal anti-corruption control units. These units monitor and implement practices aimed at reducing corruption risks within their organisations. Initiatives such as the E-Anti-Corruption project and structural reforms aimed at strengthening anti-corruption policies demonstrate Uzbekistan determination to fight corruption. The active role of the Anti-Corruption Agency and the establishment of internal controls in government agencies and large companies have helped to strengthen the institutional framework for combating corruption. The national anti-corruption system, which includes coordination, methodological guidance, monitoring and human resources support, provides a solid foundation for sustainable reduction of corruption risks in the country.

Uzbekistan has made significant strides in improving transparency and fighting corruption, as reflected in its ranking in the Corruption Perception Index. Since 2013, the country has improved its position by 14 points. In 2023, Uzbekistan showed significant progress, rising to 126th place among 180 countries with 31 points, up 3 points from the previous year, when it was ranked 140th with 28 points. Analysis of the data showed that the effectiveness of state institutions has a significant impact on the level of corruption in Uzbekistan. Table 1 shows the correlation between the World Governance Indicators and the Corruption Perception Index for Uzbekistan over the past five years.

Table 1. Correlation between the effectiveness of public administration and the level of corruption in Uzbekistan (2018-2023)

The results show that with the improvement of public administration efficiency indicators in Uzbekistan, the level of corruption is decreasing. This highlights the importance of strengthening institutional arrangements and increasing transparency in the public sector. For a more in-depth assessment, a benchmarking exercise was conducted with Albania and other Balkan countries that have also faced high levels of corruption and have implemented various reforms to reduce it. Corruption remains one of the most significant challenges for countries seeking sustainable development and democratisation^[28]. Uzbekistan and the countries of the Balkan region, including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and North Macedonia, are carrying out intensive anti-corruption reforms.

As previously noted, Uzbekistan began its significant anti-corruption reforms with the adoption of the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. ZRU-419, which was an important step after ratifying the United Nations Convention against Corruption. Since then, the country has been implementing a series of strategic and institutional reforms aimed at strengthening anti-corruption mechanisms and increasing the transparency and accountability of state institutions. The Balkan countries that have embarked on the path of integration with the European Union have also faced the need for serious anti-corruption reforms^[29]. As part of the EU accession process, they are required to meet strict standards of transparency and anti-corruption, which require deep reforms^[30]. These countries are at different stages of this process, and each country faces unique challenges.

In the Balkan countries, as in Uzbekistan, special bodies were created to fight corruption. For example, Albania has an Anti-Corruption Bureau that investigates high-level corruption cases. Montenegro and North Macedonia have their anti-corruption agencies, which play a central role in the implementation of anti-corruption strategies. These agencies are often supported by international organisations and donors, which strengthens their ability to fight corruption. In the Balkans, the strategic approach to fighting corruption is closely linked to the EU integration process. In Albania, Montenegro and North Macedonia, anti-corruption strategies are often based on EU recommendations and requirements, which stimulates the implementation of international standards and best practices^[31]. This includes improving the legal framework, establishing independent anti-corruption institutions and increasing the role of civil society in monitoring and evaluating anti-corruption efforts. The Balkan countries, such as Uzbekistan, are introducing electronic governance systems and strengthening public participation. Albania has an e-Albania portal that provides citizens with access to a wide range of public services online, which reduces opportunities for corruption^[32]. Montenegro and North Macedonia are actively using digital tools to increase transparency in public procurement and improve access to information.

Uzbekistan faces numerous challenges in the fight against corruption, including the need to strengthen the independence of anti-corruption institutions, improve coordination between different state bodies and increase accountability^[33]. However, the country has made significant progress in recent years, including rising positions in international rankings such as the Corruption Perception Index. Despite progress, the Balkan countries continue to face deep structural problems, such as political influence on judicial systems, weak institutional culture and limited resources for anti-corruption programmes^[34]. Nevertheless, successful reforms in countries such as Albania and Montenegro show that progress is possible with political will and international support.

The comparative analysis shows that anti-corruption reforms in Uzbekistan and the Balkans have common features and unique characteristics. Both regions emphasise the importance of establishing independent and well-resourced anti-corruption agencies, active use of digital technologies and ensuring public participation. At the same time, Uzbekistan can learn lessons from the experience of the Balkan countries, especially in the context of integration into international anti-corruption initiatives and standards. The anti-corruption reforms in Uzbekistan and the Balkan countries demonstrate significant progress and commitment to fighting corruption (Table 2). The experience of these countries confirms that the creation of independent institutional mechanisms, the use of digital technologies and the active participation of civil society are key components of an effective anti-corruption strategy^[35]. The comparative analysis also highlights the importance of adapting anti-corruption measures to the specific conditions of each country, which allows for a more effective fight against corruption and strengthening of democratic processes.

Table 2. Comparative Analysis of Anti-Corruption Reforms in Uzbekistan and the Balkan Region (2018-2023)

The analysis shows that countries in the Balkan region, such as Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, have achieved better results in reducing corruption due to the active participation of civil society and higher levels of institutional stability. Despite significant progress, Uzbekistan could improve its performance by strengthening cooperation between government agencies and civil society institutions. Uzbekistan ranks 78th among 142 countries. In the regional ranking of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, consisting of 15 countries, Uzbekistan is in 8th position. Georgia is the leader in this region, ranked 48th in the global rankings, followed by Montenegro and Kosovo. Belarus and Turkey were the least successful in the region, sharing 117th place in the global ranking. Over the past year, 9 out of 15 countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia have seen a decline in their scores. Moreover, seven of these nine countries experienced a deterioration in the previous year. Uzbekistan ranks 8th out of 37 in the group of lower-middle-income countries.

The Rule of Law Index also shows positive changes (Table 3). Uzbekistan moved up 26 positions, and the coefficient of the “absence of corruption” sub-index increased, which led to an increase in the overall result from 0.40 to 0.48 points. This reflects a significant improvement in the national legal system and the strengthening of anti-corruption measures. The regional ranking includes the countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia (Albania, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Turkey).

Table 3. WJP Uzbekistan Rule of Law Index ranking for 2023

In Uzbekistan, sectoral problems are addressed, and the effectiveness of anti-corruption mechanisms is being improved. The country has strengthened institutional specialisation, introduced improved legal instruments and taken steps to enhance social responsibility. The introduction of e-governance technologies and the creation of a mandatory online platform for public procurement were important steps in this direction.

To ensure the effectiveness of anti-corruption measures in Uzbekistan, a national methodology for assessing the implementation of the state anti-corruption programme has been developed. This methodology is a comprehensive tool that allows systematic monitoring and analysis of the results of anti-corruption reforms. The national methodology includes the development and application of indicators and criteria to assess progress in implementing anti-corruption measures, which in turn provides an objective picture of successes and challenges in the fight against corruption. The monitoring system ensures continuous observation of the progress of anti-corruption measures, which allows timely detection of deviations from the set goals and corrective actions to improve efficiency^[36]. Assessment reports are published and made available to the general public, contributing to increased transparency of government agencies and strengthening public confidence in anti-corruption policy. The methodology is not static; it is regularly reviewed and updated to reflect new challenges and changes in the political and economic environment. This ensures its relevance and compliance with modern realities.

Thus, the national methodology for assessing the implementation of the state anti-corruption programme and the developing research base ensure a systematic approach to fighting corruption in Uzbekistan. This provides effective management of anti-corruption efforts and significant progress in reducing the level of corruption in the country. In Uzbekistan, the introduction of an incentive mechanism for individuals who report corruption violations or assist in the fight against corruption represents a significant step in efforts to create a culture of intolerance to corruption. This mechanism promotes the active participation of citizens and public officials in anti-corruption activities and strengthens public trust in the justice system and state institutions.

One of the key elements of the incentive system is the provision of financial rewards to individuals who report corruption offences^[37]. Uzbekistan has taken measures to protect whistle-blowers to prevent possible reprisals or harassment. This includes protecting their identity and providing legal assistance if necessary. For example, if a civil servant reports the corrupt activities of a superior, the former is guaranteed anonymity and protection from dismissal or other forms of retaliation^[38].

One of the most recent significant steps to strengthen the fight against corruption was the Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. PP-228, aimed to systematically improve the knowledge of the population and civil servants in the field of anti-corruption. This initiative has received wide international recognition and support. This initiative represents an important step in the fight against corruption, which is important not only for Uzbekistan but also on the global stage. Particularly noteworthy is the creation of the Virtual Anti-Corruption Academy, which is an innovative project initiated by the Government of Uzbekistan. The Academy is aimed at systematically raising the level of knowledge and awareness of citizens and civil servants in the field of anti-corruption. This initiative shares global efforts to promote the principles of integrity, transparency and accountability in all areas of the economy. Lack of transparency and insufficient accountability create favourable conditions for the emergence and strengthening of corrupt networks and schemes^[39]. Uzbekistan has once again demonstrated its commitment to creating a society free of corruption, where the core values of public administration are based on the principles of honesty, openness and responsibility. The Virtual Anti-Corruption Academy fully reflects these principles and serves as an inspiring example for other countries.

The introduction of an incentive mechanism for whistle-blowers is an important component of Uzbekistani anti-corruption strategy. It contributes to the formation of a culture of rejection of corruption, active participation of citizens in anti-corruption activities and strengthening of trust in state institutions. Examples of successful application of these measures underscore their importance and effectiveness in creating a more transparent and accountable system of public administration.

4. Discussion

The results of this study are consistent with the findings presented in other works. For instance, Park and Kim^[40] studied the impact of e-government on reducing corruption. They argued that the introduction of technology into public administration, including the automation of services and the digitalisation of processes, significantly reduces the opportunities for petty corruption. The authors noted that such technologies are particularly effective in developing countries, where traditional forms of public administration often fail to address the problem of corruption. This study focused on the relationship between institutional reforms and corruption in public administration, with a focus on Uzbekistan and the Balkan region. The focus was on how institutional changes, such as the creation of specialised anti-corruption agencies, the introduction of accountability mechanisms and civil society participation, and increased transparency of government procedures, affect corruption. Both studies agreed that improved public institutions and the introduction of new technologies lead to a reduction in corruption, especially in the context of developing countries and countries in transition. However, the studies differed in their emphasis: this study focused on institutional changes, such as the creation of specialised agencies and civil society participation, while the researchers emphasised the role of technology and e-government as the main drivers of corruption reduction. While agreeing with their conclusions on the importance of e-government, it should be noted that technological measures alone are not sufficient. Comprehensive improvements in institutional structures and procedures are essential to ensure a long-term reduction in corruption^[41]. The introduction of technology should be accompanied by governance reforms, improved legal frameworks and strengthened civil society, which the authors did not sufficiently address in their study.

A similar opinion is shared by Freytag and Faraz Riaz^[42], who in their study addressed the digitalisation of public services potentially reducing petty corruption and improving public trust in developing countries. As previously mentioned, this study also recognises the role of digitalisation in the fight against corruption but focuses more on institutional reforms and their integration with digital solutions. In particular, the author emphasises the importance of establishing specialised anti-corruption agencies and reporting mechanisms that can work in tandem with technology. Thus, it is possible to partially agree with the conclusions on the importance of digital technologies but supplement their approach with a broader view of the need for institutional change.

The issue of the use of digital services and e-government was considered by Androniceanu et al.^[43]. The authors analysed the relationship between digitalisation and administrative corruption in the EU countries using the methods of canonical correlation analysis and principal components analysis. Both studies emphasise the importance of digitalisation of public administration to reduce corruption, increase transparency and improve governance. This and aforementioned studies show that improving management processes through digitalisation leads to more efficient and less corrupt public administration. The main difference between the studies is the geographical coverage. This paper focused on Uzbekistan and the Balkan countries, providing a detailed analysis of the specifics of these countries, while the study authors focused on EU countries, identifying differences in digitalisation and corruption levels between Northern and Eastern Europe.

The results of this study confirm the significant impact of digitalisation on reducing corruption. It was found that the introduction of e-government significantly reduces the opportunities for corrupt practices by increasing transparency and simplifying access to public services. Higher levels of e-government contribute to better control of corruption by automating processes and reducing the need for face-to-face interactions between citizens and officials, which reduces the likelihood of bribery and other forms of corruption^[44]. Digitalisation helps to improve the efficiency of public administration by making processes more transparent and accountable, which in turn increases public trust in government institutions^[45]. Thus, despite the differences in approaches and contexts, both studies confirm the important role of digitalisation in the fight against corruption. This underscores the need for a comprehensive approach to reforms, including both technological and institutional changes, to achieve sustainable results in fighting corruption and improving public administration.

A similar view was expressed by Arayankalam et al.^[46]. They analysed how the maturity of e-government, administrative efficiency and the spread of virtual social networks affect the reduction of corruption using data from different countries. This study found that the digitalisation of public services and e-government implementation in Uzbekistan and Balkan countries contributed to the reduction of administrative corruption. The researchers found that higher levels of e-government improved corruption control and increased the efficiency of public administration by automating processes and reducing the need for face-to-face interactions between citizens and officials. This reduced the likelihood of bribery and other forms of corruption. The researchers also highlighted that digitalisation increases the overall transparency and accountability of government processes, which improves trust in public institutions. While the authors’ study also confirmed that e-government maturity helps to reduce corruption, they devoted considerable emphasis to the role of virtual social media in the fight against corruption. The researchers argued that the proliferation of social media helps to increase social control and reduce corruption. This study did not address this aspect, focusing on the digitalisation of public services and administrative reform.

The impact of e-government on corruption in public services in developing and transition countries was addressed by Sadik-Zada et al.^[47]. Both studies highlight the significant impact of digitalisation and e-government implementation on reducing corruption. This study shows that the digitalisation of public services in Uzbekistan and the Balkan region contributes to the reduction of administrative corruption. The researchers confirm that e-government significantly reduces petty corruption in developing and transition countries. In addition, both studies note the importance of socio-economic factors in the fight against corruption. The researchers addressed the impact of administrative measures and digitalisation, while the authors of the current study emphasised per capita income, political rights, civil liberties and the share of natural resources in exports. Furthermore, it should be noted that both studies emphasise that digitalisation improves the quality of public administration and increases its efficiency. The study by the researchers details the impact of various socio-economic variables, such as per capita income and the share of natural resources in exports, on the level of corruption, while this study focused more on specific reforms and administrative measures taken in Uzbekistan and the Balkans. The conclusions of the author’s study on the significant role of e-government in reducing corruption and improving public administration are noteworthy as this study also shows that digitalisation and improvement of administrative processes contribute to the reduction of corruption.

The other side of anti-corruption methods was addressed by Gouvea et al.^[48]. The authors analyse the relationship between socio-economic development and the level of corruption in different countries. Their research shows that countries with higher income levels and better socio-economic indicators tend to have lower levels of corruption. The researchers also note that corruption is more widespread in low- and middle-income countries, which hinders their economic development and the strengthening of state institutions. The conclusions of the researchers that improved economic conditions can help reduce corruption are noteworthy. However, this study additionally analysed how institutional reforms and civil society engagement could further contribute to reducing corruption, even in the context of limited economic resources.

For example, Frost^[49] addressed how increased education and improved economic conditions affect the perception and level of corruption. As stated, a higher level of education helps to reduce corruption, as more educated citizens have more opportunities and tools to counteract corrupt practices. The researcher also emphasised that socio-economic factors play a key role in shaping the perception of corruption in society. The researcher also examined the role of education and economic conditions in the fight against corruption. As stressed, legal literacy and civil society participation are important components of anti-corruption strategies^[50]. The analysis showed that educational programmes and economic development can significantly reduce corruption, which is consistent with the findings. The study by the researcher also emphasised the importance of educational programmes for civil servants and the public, as well as civil society participation as key complements to educational and economic factors in the fight against corruption.

The interaction of different forms of trust with formal institutions and their impact on corruption was addressed by Tu^[51]. The author noted that high levels of interpersonal trust can contribute to more effective functioning of institutions and reduce corruption, as people tend to trust each other more and treat public resources more responsibly. On the one hand, this study emphasises the importance of good formal institutions that provide legal frameworks and procedures for fighting corruption. However, depending on the specific context and conditions, high levels of trust can also create opportunities for corrupt practices, especially in countries with underdeveloped or ineffective oversight and transparency institutions. Comparing with the results of the author’s study, which focuses on the effectiveness of anti-corruption measures and their impact on the level of corruption in Uzbekistan, it is possible to note that both works consider mechanisms for combating corruption. The researcher focuses on the interaction of different forms of trust with formal institutions and their role in the dynamics of corruption. The author analyses how high levels of interpersonal trust can either facilitate or hinder corruption, depending on the strength and effectiveness of formal institutions. In contrast, this study focuses on specific anti-corruption measures and their impact on the level of corruption in Uzbekistan.

5. Conclusions

The study of the relationship between institutions and corruption in the public administration of Uzbekistan has identified key aspects that affect the effectiveness of anti-corruption measures. The analysis shows that strengthening the institutional framework and introducing new governance mechanisms significantly reduces the level of corruption in the public sector.

In Uzbekistan, the active implementation of institutional reforms, such as the creation of the Anti-Corruption Agency and the development of a national methodology for evaluating anti-corruption programmes, has contributed to a more structured approach to fighting corruption. These measures have helped Uzbekistan to move up 14 points in the Corruption Perception Index since 2013, reflecting significant improvements in the perception of corruption within the country. Uzbekistan improved its position in the Corruption Perception Index, rising to 126th place in 2022. This is a significant achievement given its previous position. The country also showed a significant increase in the “absence of corruption” sub-index, indicating improved law enforcement and reduced corrupt practices in public administration.

The introduction of electronic platforms for assessing corruption risks and improved transparency of public procurement contributed to the reduction of corruption risks. The creation of a unified register of civil servants and a system of mandatory participation of civil society activists in tender commissions were important steps towards increasing the openness and accountability of public authorities. Compared to anti-corruption efforts in the Balkan region, such as Albania and Kosovo, Uzbekistan has shown similar trends in strengthening anti-corruption mechanisms. The Balkan countries also focus on sectoral approaches and the introduction of technology, which allows them to fight corruption in specific sectors of the economy more effectively.

Promising areas for further research include studying the impact of cultural and socio-economic factors on the perception and effectiveness of anti-corruption measures, as well as developing methods to quantify the long-term impact of anti-corruption reforms on economic and social development. The study had some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results, namely, the analysis was based on available data and estimates that may not fully reflect the full picture of corruption practices. In addition, the implementation and effective functioning of new anti-corruption mechanisms takes time, and some initiatives have not yet had time to show their full impact.

This study has demonstrated Uzbekistan’s significant progress in the fight against corruption, highlighting the importance of institutional reforms and the introduction of innovative approaches. The comparison with the Balkan countries has shown that Uzbekistan is moving in the right direction, adopting successful practices and adapting them to its realities. It is important to continue to develop and strengthen these initiatives, while maintaining the active participation of all stakeholders, to achieve sustainable success in the fight against corruption.

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